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Rudolf Steiner
Rudolf Joseph Lorenz Steiner (27 (25?) February 1861〔Steiner's autobiography gives his date of birth as 27 February 1861. However, there is an undated autobiographical fragment written by Steiner, referred to in a footnote in his autobiography in German (GA 28), that says, "My birth fell on 25 February 1861. Two days later I was baptized." See Christoph Lindenberg, ''Rudolf Steiner'', Rowohlt 1992, ISBN 3-499-50500-2, p. 8. In 2009 new documentation appeared supporting a date of 27 February : see Günter Aschoff, ("Rudolf Steiners Geburtstag am 27. Februar 1861 – Neue Dokumente" ), ''Das Goetheanum'' 2009/9, pp. 3ff〕 – 30 March 1925) was an Austrian philosopher, author, social reformer, architect, and esotericist.〔Some of the literature regarding Steiner's work in these various fields: Goulet, P: “Les Temps Modernes?”, ''L'Architecture D'Aujourd'hui'', December 1982, pp. 8–17; (Architect Rudolf Steiner ) at ''GreatBuildings.com''; (Rudolf Steiner ) ''International Architecture Database''; Brennan, M.: (Rudolf Steiner ) ''ArtNet Magazine'', 18 March 1998; Blunt, R.: Waldorf Education: Theory and Practice – A Background to the Educational Thought of Rudolf Steiner. Master Thesis, Rhodes University, Grahamstown, 1995; Ogletree, E.J.: Rudolf Steiner: Unknown Educator, ''Elementary School Journal'', 74(6): 344–352, March 1974; Nilsen, A.:(A Comparison of Waldorf & Montessori Education ), University of Michigan; Rinder, L: (Rudolf Steiner's Blackboard Drawings: An Aesthetic Perspective ) and (exhibition of Rudolf Steiner's Blackboard Drawings ), at Berkeley Art Museum, 11 October 1997 – 4 January 1998; Aurélie Choné, “Rudolf Steiner's Mystery Plays: Literary Transcripts of an Esoteric Gnosis and/or Esoteric Attempt at Reconciliation between Art and Science?”, Aries, Volume 6, Number 1, 2006, pp. 27–58(32), Brill publishing; Christopher Schaefer, “Rudolf Steiner as a Social Thinker”, Re-vision Vol 15, 1992; and Antoine Faivre, Jacob Needleman, Karen Voss; ''Modern Esoteric Spirituality'', Crossroad Publishing, 1992.〕〔(“Who was Rudolf Steiner and what were his revolutionary teaching ideas?” Richard Garner, Education Editor, ''The Independent'' )〕 Steiner gained initial recognition at the end of the nineteenth century as a literary critic and published philosophical works including ''The Philosophy of Freedom''. At the beginning of the twentieth century, he founded an esoteric spiritual movement, anthroposophy, with roots in German idealist philosophy and theosophy; other influences include Goethean science and Rosicrucianism.
In the first, more philosophically oriented phase of this movement, Steiner attempted to find a synthesis between science and spirituality;〔R. Bruce Elder, ''Harmony and dissent: film and avant-garde art movements in the early twentieth century'', ISBN 978-1-55458-028-6, (id=gJ408vKWZ14C&pg=PA32 p. 32 )〕 his philosophical work of these years, which he termed ''spiritual science'', sought to apply the clarity of thinking characteristic of Western philosophy to spiritual questions,〔 differentiating this approach from what he considered to be vaguer approaches to mysticism. In a second phase, beginning around 1907, he began working collaboratively in a variety of artistic media, including drama, the movement arts (developing a new artistic form, ''eurythmy'') and architecture, culminating in the building of the Goetheanum, a cultural centre to house all the arts. In the third phase of his work, beginning after World War I, Steiner worked to establish various practical endeavors, including Waldorf education, biodynamic agriculture, and anthroposophical medicine.〔Christoph Lindenberg, ''Rudolf Steiner'', Rowohlt 1992, ISBN 3-499-50500-2, pp. 123–6〕
Steiner advocated a form of ethical individualism, to which he later brought a more explicitly spiritual approach. He based his epistemology on Johann Wolfgang Goethe's world view, in which "Thinking … is no more and no less an organ of perception than the eye or ear. Just as the eye perceives colours and the ear sounds, so thinking perceives ideas."〔Rudolf Steiner, “Goethean Science”, GA1, 1883〕 A consistent thread that runs from his earliest philosophical phase through his later spiritual orientation is the goal of demonstrating that there are no essential limits to human knowledge.〔Helmut Zander, Schweizer Fernsehen, ''Sternstunden Philosophie: Die Anthroposophie Rudolf Steiners'', program aired 15 February 2009〕
== Biography ==
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